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 ===== Photometry and Spectroscopy ===== ===== Photometry and Spectroscopy =====
  
-==== ** - Photometric Properties** ====+==== - Photometric Properties ====
  
 Galaxy photometry is the quantitative measurement of light emitted by galaxies across different regions and wavelengths. Unlike stars, which appear as points, galaxies are extended objects whose images are blurred by atmospheric turbulence, a phenomenon known as seeing. Because of this, ground-based optical telescopes generally cannot distinguish details smaller than about $1/3''$. Galaxy photometry is the quantitative measurement of light emitted by galaxies across different regions and wavelengths. Unlike stars, which appear as points, galaxies are extended objects whose images are blurred by atmospheric turbulence, a phenomenon known as seeing. Because of this, ground-based optical telescopes generally cannot distinguish details smaller than about $1/3''$.
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 **Surface Brightness and Isophotes:** The fundamental measurement in galaxy photometry is surface brightness ($I(\mathbf{x})$), defined as the amount of light per square arcsecond at a specific point in a galaxy's image. Mathematically, it is expressed as: **Surface Brightness and Isophotes:** The fundamental measurement in galaxy photometry is surface brightness ($I(\mathbf{x})$), defined as the amount of light per square arcsecond at a specific point in a galaxy's image. Mathematically, it is expressed as:
 $$I(\mathbf{x}) = \frac{L}{4\pi D^2}$$ $$I(\mathbf{x}) = \frac{L}{4\pi D^2}$$
-where $L$ is luminosity and $D$ is the physical diameter of a patch of the galaxy. Surface brightness is typically measured in mag arcsec$^{-2}$ or $L_\odot \text{ pc}^{-2}$. A crucial property of surface brightness is that it is independent of the observer's distance, except at very large cosmological distances where the expansion of the Universe causes it to dim. Contours of constant surface brightness are called isophotes.+where $L$ is luminosity and $D$ is the physical diameter of a patch of the galaxy. Surface brightness is typically measured in $\rm mag \ arcsec^{-2}$ or $L_\odot \text{ pc}^{-2}$. A crucial property of surface brightness is that it is independent of the observer's distance, except at very large cosmological distances where the expansion of the Universe causes it to dim. Contours of constant surface brightness are called isophotes.
  
 **Structural Profiles**: Astronomers use mathematical models to describe how a galaxy's light is distributed: **Structural Profiles**: Astronomers use mathematical models to describe how a galaxy's light is distributed:
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 Galactic Disks: The surface brightness of spiral and S0 disks generally follows an exponential profile: $I(R) = I(0) \exp(-R/h_R)$, where $h_R$ is the radial scale length (typically 1–10 kpc). Galactic Disks: The surface brightness of spiral and S0 disks generally follows an exponential profile: $I(R) = I(0) \exp(-R/h_R)$, where $h_R$ is the radial scale length (typically 1–10 kpc).
  
-Bulges and Ellipticals: These systems are often modeled using the Sérsic formula: $I(R) = I(0) \exp[-(R/R_0)^{1/n}]$. A specific version of this where $n=4$ is known as the **de Vaucouleurs $R^{1/4}$ law**, which provides a good description for luminous elliptical galaxies.+Bulges and Ellipticals: These systems are often modeled using the Sérsic formula: $I(R) = I(0) \exp[-(R/R_0)^{1/n}]$. A specific version of this where $n=4$ is known as the de Vaucouleurs $R^{1/4}$ law, which provides a good description for luminous elliptical galaxies.
  
 Effective Radius ($R_e$): A standard measure of size, $R_e$ is the radius of a circle on the sky that encloses half of a galaxy's total light. Effective Radius ($R_e$): A standard measure of size, $R_e$ is the radius of a circle on the sky that encloses half of a galaxy's total light.
  
-[{{ :courses:ast403:gal_radial.jpg?400  | Fig 1: Surface brightness profile for NGC 7331 in the I band, near 8000 Â+[{{ :courses:ast403:gal_radial.jpg?600  | Fig 1: Surface brightness profile for NGC 7331 in the I band, near 8000 Â
 The dashed line is an exponential with $h_R = 55′′$; the dotted line represents additional The dashed line is an exponential with $h_R = 55′′$; the dotted line represents additional
 light – R. Peletier. }}] light – R. Peletier. }}]
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 **Chemical Enrichment**: Spectroscopy allows astronomers to measure a galaxy's **metallicity ($Z$)**. Luminous elliptical galaxies tend to be more metal-rich and redder, while smaller galaxies are often metal-poor and bluer. In many systems, the central regions are more metal-rich than the periphery, a trend detectable through the varying strength of absorption features like the **Mgb** and **Na D** lines. **Chemical Enrichment**: Spectroscopy allows astronomers to measure a galaxy's **metallicity ($Z$)**. Luminous elliptical galaxies tend to be more metal-rich and redder, while smaller galaxies are often metal-poor and bluer. In many systems, the central regions are more metal-rich than the periphery, a trend detectable through the varying strength of absorption features like the **Mgb** and **Na D** lines.
  
-[{{ :courses:ast403:spectra_spiral.jpg?400 | Fig 2: Spectra of galaxies from ultraviolet to near-infrared wavelengths; incompletely+[{{ :courses:ast403:spectra_spiral.jpg?600 | Fig 2: Spectra of galaxies from ultraviolet to near-infrared wavelengths; incompletely
 removed emission lines from the night sky are marked. From below: a red S0 spectrum; a removed emission lines from the night sky are marked. From below: a red S0 spectrum; a
 bluer Sb galaxy; an Sc spectrum showing blue and near-ultraviolet light from hot young bluer Sb galaxy; an Sc spectrum showing blue and near-ultraviolet light from hot young
courses/ast403/photometry-and-spectroscopy.1770887237.txt.gz · Last modified: by shuvo
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