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-====== Brightness and flux ======
-Astronomers measure the brightness of an astronomical object as a function of direction, frequency, time and polarization. Therefore, it is very important to understand the distance-independent quantity **brightness** and the distance-dependent quantity **flux**. If you take three pictures of the Sun from Venus, Earth and Mars, you will find the same brightness across the images even though the flux was different. Brightness is an //absolute// measure and flux only an //apparent// one.
-===== Brightness =====
-**Brightness** and **intensity** are sometimes used to mean different things: brightness is the true power emitted by the source per unit area per unit solid angle, and intensity the power per unit area per unit solid angle along the path to a detector. If there is no **absorption**, **emission** or **scattering** along the path, the two quantities are the same.
-We will use the **ray-optics approximation** to define brightness and flux. Here we assume that light travels as bullets of photons along straight lines. The assumption is good only if the emitting source is much larger than the wavelength of the emitted radiation which is almost always true in astronomy.
-{{https://www.cv.nrao.edu/~sransom/web/x217.png?nolink&500}}
-The figure shows propagation of radiation from a source to a detector from the point of views of the source (right) and the detector (left). In this setup, the **specific** brightness or intensity
-$$ I_\nu \equiv \frac{dE}{dt (\cos\theta\ d\sigma) d\nu d\Omega} $$
-where $dP=dE/dt$ is the infinitesimal power, $(\cos\theta \ d\sigma)$ is the area projected perpendicular to the direction of propagation, $d\nu$ is the frequency interval and $d\Omega$ the solid angle. The unit of this quantity is thus W m$^{-2}$ Hz$^{-1}$ sr$^{-1}$. The word //specific// and the subscript $\nu$ are used to mean that the intensity is measured per unit frequency. The brightness can also be expressed as a function of wavelength:
-$$ I_\lambda \equiv \frac{dP}{(\cos\theta\ d\sigma) d\lambda d\Omega} $$
-where $|I_\nu\ d\nu|=|I_\lambda\ d\lambda|$ which entails
-$$ \frac{I_\lambda}{I_\nu} = \left|\frac{d\nu}{d\lambda}\right| = \frac{c}{\lambda^2} = \frac{\nu^2}{c}. $$
-Specific intensity is conserved along the path of a ray and, by extension, total intensity $I$ is also conserved. Brightness is defined within infinitesimal frequency or wavelength ranges because the properties of the source may vary with frequency and most theorems about radiation are true for all narrow ranges.
-Conservation of intensity directly entails that brightness does not depend on distance. Intensity or brightness is the same at the source or the detector. //Passive// optical systems like collectors of light (lens, mirror, dish, antenna) cannot change the brightness of an object, they can only change the angular size. An optical image of the [[Andromeda]] galaxy looks dazzlingly bright only because of long exposure times, i. e. because of the detectors, not collectors.
-===== Flux =====
-From the unit of **flux density** (or just flux) W m$^{-2}$ Hz$^{-1}$, we can write the definition as
-$$ S_\nu = \int_\nu \frac{dP}{d\sigma\ d\nu} = \int_\nu I_\nu \cos\theta\ d\Omega. $$
-{{https://www.cv.nrao.edu/~sransom/web/x219.png?nolink&400}}
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-Main reference: Condon and Ransonm, //Essential Radio Astronomy//, Princeton University Press.